Pigments—Lead-based whites, reds, yellows and oranges and their alteration phases

Abstract This review summarises the state-of-the-art of lead-based pigment studies, addressing their production, trade, use and possible alteration. Other issues, such as those related to investigation protection artworks bearing pigments are also presented. The focus is mineralogical, both raw materials degradation products mineral phases occurring in nature (except for very few cases). minerals described abellaite, anglesite, blixite, caledonite, challacolloite, cerussite, cotunnite, crocoite, galena, grootfonteinite, hydrocerussite, laurionite, leadhillite, litharge, macphersonite, massicot, mimetite, minium, palmierite, phosgenite, plattnerite, plumbonacrite, schulténite, scrutinyite, somersetite, susannite, vanadinite an unnamed phase (PbMg(CO 3 ) 2 ). discussed lead white, red lead, lead-tin yellow, lead-tin-antimony lead-chromate yellow Naples yellow. An attempt made describe history, technology alteration these most complete manner possible, despite topic's evident breadth. Finally, insight into analytical methods that can (and should) be used accurate archaeometric investigations a summary key concepts conclude this review, along with further list references starting point research.